SAADIARIES

Wednesday, November 25, 2009

Being a Uyghur . .

‘Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland’ by S. Frederick Starr provided great insight to understanding the complexities that surround the Uyghur population in the region of Xinjiang. One can recognize that formation of any culture or identity does not occur in a vacuum but rather within a socio-political milieu. Similarly, the Uyghur identity developed itself in relation to the historical, cultural and geographic interactions with the PRC and other political forces surrounding it throughout history. Identity itself is a complex combination of local, regional and national interactions and cannot be perceived within an isolated infrastructure. Uyghur identity traces its history back to being a definitive name for people from a range of cultural backgrounds; Mangolian Turkic nomads, Buddhist Turkic people in Turpan. It was only a later conversion to Islam that Uyghur became a reference to Muslims. However, the present Uyghur identity arose even later on in time. Uyghur identity established itself as an ethnic group due to the creation of Chinese nation-state. With the establishment of China, ethnicity arose as people were organized into collective groups with shared characteristics. The Uyghur identity cannot be categorized under one unified group, due to their geographical and internal distinctiveness. For example, the Uyghur identity promotes a collective allegiance to an ethnic identity however the various Uyghur groups have their distinct allegiances to local clans and families.

Due to these complex systems that constitute an identity, there is a dynamic nature in their response to external and internal challenges. Uyghur Population has responded in a variety of ways to China’s efforts of integrating Xinjiang into its national framework. These responses can be categorized into three main themes. First, the Uyghur population has actively or passively adapted to the acculturation processes. Second, the Uyghurs responded to Chinese policies in a non-violent manner. This includes the use of education, literature and other means of communication to express the mistrust towards the government policies. Another response by the Uyghurs is in a violent form, actively demonstrating their resistance to Chinese policies. This violent approach is expressed in various forms such as militancy, Islamic fundamentalism, terrorist groups etc.

China’s national policies towards minorities have also been very dynamic in nature, and distinct within the changing ethnic contexts. China has used a combination of hard and soft policies to implement its national agenda in Xinjiang. Starr describes these policies as:

‘Soft policies towards Xinjiang foster regional autonomy and promote affirmative action policies in order to undermine ethnic resistance and sustain Chinese power there.’ ‘Hard policies are used to crush the various forms of resistance that surface during the period that soft policies are emphasized’

However, this combination of soft and hard policies has consequences as the Uyghur react to these changing modes. The changing policies by China from hard to soft to hard, in order to attain its national interests of integrating Xinjiang has led to an increased resistance by the Uyghurs to these processes of acculturation. However, there are also Uyghurs that accept the change and go along with the acculturation processes. One of the means used by China to progress its nationalistic agenda is through the use of Hui population as mediators. The Hui have a linguistic advantage of being bilingual and able to communicate with both the Uyghur and Han population. Through this communicative tool, they are able to express Chinese ideas to Uyghur population as well as maintain their identity as Chinese Muslims.

This video shows picturesof various Uyghur protests against China's policies:

Throughout this reading, I was able to understand the complexities that really constitute and ethnic identity. Even in that matter, if one can really recognize a collective group of people with distinct geographical and social allegiances, under one identity. One would believe that in order to deal with a dynamic state of things, the best way would be to adopt a dynamic set of policies. However, through the example of China’s combination of hard and soft policies it seems obvious that even that remains unsuccessful.

Reading on to ‘Dislocating China: Reflection on Muslims, Minorities and Other Subaltern Subjects’. I was able to develop another perspective to the situation in Xinjiang. Gladney proposes that Uyghurs have been used as a mean to reach China’s foreign policy objectives. He further argues that through the objectification of Uyghurs throughout the world, China is able to develop an image of unified Han identity, one that is part of the central Chinese infrastructure. He states that China has used a number of mechanisms to achieve these results. First, through the popularization of Uyghur political incidents such as Salman Rushdie and trans-Eurasian railways, China is able to present Uyghur in a transnational sphere. This transnationalization of their image has allowed the Chinese government to further their political interests at the stake of Uyghur ethnic stability. Second, Islamization is another process used by China to reach its nationalistic goals. Gladney discusses this as:

‘On the surface the state exploits its favorable policies towards Muslims, but in reality as a communist state it actively discourages Islamic practice’

Through this process, one can see the combination of hard and soft policies that were discussed by Starr.

Also, Gladney provides details of a new form of activism that has allowed the Uyghurs to represent themselves in a different light. The Uyghurs are only able to express their vision as distinct and resistant to exploitation through the use of internet.

Furthermore, Gladney discusses another aspect that has been integral in allowing China to implement its exploitative policies over the Uyghurs. Through the use of education, China is able to develop a central model of literature that represents its national goals to Uyghurs as being beneficial to them. Through education, China has been able to greatly influence the Uyghur identity.

In conclusion, one can recognize that the Uyghur identity as it exists today is largely based on its presence within the socio-political sphere and its interaction with the government.

Sunday, November 1, 2009

Uyghur Musical Sphere

I love music and have no limits when it comes to choosing from the trazillion genres out there. I often surf on Youtube to find music from all around the world, and some of them really hit the chords. This being said, I have had the most broad collection of songs on my ipod ranging from Bengali, French to Bollywood music to Kanye (well not so much after he let Taylor Swift finish, and made the most useless stage appearances of all time ). With the interest in the topic of Islam In China, this was obviously the first thing that interested me the most. So I started looking into the musical tradition associated with these Northern regions in China where Islam is most concentrated . Let me share some of the awesome music that I ended up finding.

First, here is a form of traditional Uyghur Music. I ended up finding some great information regarding use of a set of special instruments called 'The Twelve Muqam'. This is to refer to the twelve musical instruments, each with a distinct rhythm and sound. According to wiki: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muqam. The traditional music is amazing because of its unique blend of Arabic and Chinese musical traditions. You can clearly hear the mix influence of both the traditions in all the songs. Furthermore, the song titles are written in an Arabic script where as the accent seems to be close to a Chinese form.

Now here is the fun part, a peak preview into the unique Uyghur musical tradition (a concentrate of hours of YouTube surfing and enjoying one video to ten others :-P)

This video shows a form of traditional Uyghur dance:

I found this one, which is actually a clip from one of the Uyghur movies. Forward to around 2:00 and the traditional dance form can be seen (As an incentive to watching this video, forward to 7:10 and enjoy the annoying-ness of the man. LOL gave me a laugh.. he might be annoying, but hey the man gotta say what he gotta say!)

Finally, I ended up finding this video which is actually a blend of western music in it. Its interesting to see that with the Uyghur tradition where there is a crossing of two identities; Muslim and China, there is a further blend occurring in the tradition with the contemporary media influences from the west. You can clearly hear some of the drums and beats influenced by the West.

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Wednesday, October 28, 2009

A Muslim First, Rest After

A private Hui shop displaying products on the street in Muslim quarters of Xian

I have been taking a course that connects religion with morality and law. One of the interesting aspects is analyzing the reasons why people in the Eastern world and developing countries have been more inclined towards religion. One of the main factors, was that people were disappointed in the secular models of rule such as communist, socialist rule. This may be associated to various other factors such as: unsatisfactory modernization, widespread socio-economic imbalance, incomplete formation of identity, erosion of traditional morals and values, disillusionment with secular nationalism. These factors led to alienation of the population from the government as they tried to search for an identity and meaning for themselves. In doing so, religion is not only able to provide a framework for spiritualization but also provides various means for the people to meet their socio-political goals. In the Muslim community in China, this system seems to be very prominent. Whether or not people hold the government responsible for not meeting their needs for survival, religion has been significant in making great efforts to fill the void. With the presence of religious institutions such as mosques, not only are people able to identify themselves through the association with a mosque, but also the mosque provides a basis for the creation of a community.

Through out the reading, the contrasting culture and values that exist between the East and the West were astonishing. The western model of living seems to be focused on the idea of individualism and non-interference. In a sense, the rights of the individuals deal with the rights of property, freedom of speech, the right to privacy. The Muslim community in China seems to be quite different from that, and this life-style seems to work for them perfectly well. People seem to be more open to interaction with their surroundings, everyone is closely knitted in a form of a community. Even examples of material culture provide examples of their close interactions; houses have connected walls, families share houses, one house can serve as a commercial center as well as a housing facility. The courtyards as an 'Intermediary place' (Gillette 38), seem to define exactly how the courtyard act as a bridge between people and their communities.

One thing that really surprised me was that how surroundings can have such a deep influence on the living style of people. Having taken a course in Islamic architecture, I am familiar with general elements and structure of mosques and Islamic monuments. One of the most common features in mosques is the fact that they have large courtyards to allow accommodation of daily prayers. Since Muslim houses in the Hui community in Xian were mostly built around a mosque, it was interesting to note how some elements were incorporated in the houses. Such as, the houses were also built in a courtyard style. One is able to visualize a Muslim environment that is highly traditional, with religious values embedded in their daily lives and with rich cultural influences.

Furthermore, this article really made me connect the condition of the Hui quarters in Xian in the spectrum of racism and discrimination. This being said, racism is a complex phenomenon on its own that can exist in various forms. The fact that the government was involved in reforming whole of Xian with the exclusion of the Hui quarters, points to an existence of social inequality that is woven throughout social institutions that make up the government. This systemic form of racism, allows one to notice that religion and ethnicity that make Hui community distinct from the central Chinese identity may be the leading factors for the Hui to be discriminated against. Also, not only is this racism institutionalized but also embedded within individual consciousness as could be noticed by degrading remarks of local government officials. Furthermore, another interesting trend of racism is seen in the Hui quarters of Xian. The racism at an external government level, has led to having an effect on the human psyche as well. These oppressive ideologies are internalized by the victims as they blame themselves for their low conditions. In the case of Hui, the common notion regarding the presence of a disoriented system is because of their own disorganization and educational backwardness. I was surprised that they were unable to relate a their conditions to the lack of government support. The practices that may be defined as 'backward' or 'superstitious' to the government may hold high significance within a minority culture and religion. The institutionalized model to identifying the Hui as inferior, is associated with various government policies. If one is able to view this in a broader perspective, this relationship of the Hui with the Chinese government may be similar to that of Nazis and their victims. This may be a very strong comparison, however the type of tactics used by the government to try to assimilate the people and end their cultural values make it difficult to view it any differently. The Nazi ideology may be a direct approach to deliberately and systematically end a race, however use of indirect means by the PRC to dissolve the Hui identity allows one to notice similarities between the two. Practices such as limiting the number of children they could have, controlling their location of cemeteries, not even providing general welfare to the people, are some of the example of this indirect genocide.

Also, the Hui identity remained at a disadvantage when Hui quarters in Xian were present, or even after the massive reconstruction undertaken by the government with the aim to improve the conditions of the area. Before and after the construction was a win-win situation for the government. In the quarters, Hui had internalized the government's ideas about the Hui being backward and inferior. Despite the governments inability to provide better environment and facilities, the Hui continued to blame themselves for the overall bad conditions. In this context, the government remained at an advantage as they did not have to invest in the area, as well their superiority remained intact amongst the Hui minority. Even after the reconstruction, the Hui maintained their inferior role in a sense that not only was the government able to organize where they lived, but also structured their daily lives; Hui nationality holidays, nationality schools.

Whether Muslims in Xian were more influenced by forces of modernization or not, one thing remains prominent that religion was at the center of the Hui community in Xian. This may be due to the highly influential role that mosques served in their daily lives. Mosques played many roles such as, provided an identity to the Hui as they associated themselves with a specific mosque, provided a space for collective worship, were a main site for religious education, consisted of libraries and Islamic educational material for the congregations, were associated with Islamic history in China, provided a location for Muslim to meet their religious obligations such as charity and served as a site of worship and fasting during Ramadan, served as a location to allow socialization amongst the Muslims in the area and much more. Thus, mosques were not only a central spiritual site for Muslims, but also met the various socio-economic needs of the Hui community in Xian.

This video shows the present busy Xian market:

One of the most prominent themes that I was able to notice was the close relationships of Hui with their religion. As I discussed earlier, I believe that one of the main reasons of this strong interaction was due to their minority and inferior status. Religion provided them with a sense of meaning and and an identity that represented them. Islam remained central to the Hui community in Xian and various forces of Arabization played a major role in bringing in new Islamic ideas from the Middle East into China. Arabization provided a model of modernity that was unique to Islam, and this was highly valued by the Hui. Through this affinity to religion, not only were they able to connect themselves to the greater Islamic world, but also allowed them to represent their distinctiveness as Muslims in China. Also, its very interesting to see how significant food and eating habits can be in defining an individual. Due to the strict Islamic dietary restrictions, the Hui had limitations to what they could eat and what not. Food played a major role in separating the Hui from the Han, regardless of how assimilated or 'Chinese' the Hui may have become. The distinct Hui cuisine played a role in representing the overall Hui tradition, as it displayed the Hui distinctiveness.

In conclusion, whether it may be residential conditions, religious institutions or dietary commitments, one is able to notice the close association of the Hui with their Muslim identity. The religion played a central role in their lives due to its ability of providing the Hui a mean for religious spiritualization, as well as serving as a platform to display their uniqueness within a government that was entirely focused on a singular framework to assimilate everyone and disregarded diversity.

Maris Boyd Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing: Modernization and Consumption among Urban Chinese Muslims (Stanford UP, 2000)

*Maris Gillette, “The ‘Glorious Returns’ of Chinese Pilgrims to Mecca,” in Living with Separation in China: Anthropological Accounts, ed. by Charles Stafford (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 2003)

Wednesday, October 7, 2009

The Shades of Islam In China

I was inspired by not only the context of the reading ‘Chinese Gleams Of Sufi Light’ by Wang Tai-yu , but the way it was organized also highly impressed me. The literary devices used through out the writing allow the reader to visualize the idea and connect to the presented ideologies. It is crucial to note that the author begins the writing with a simple phrase of ‘bears witness’. This idea is carried all the way through the end of the discussion as complex ideas are simplified during the process. He first begins to expand on the idea by simplifying the phrase and its significance. The writing effectively delivers its perspective, as the ideas explained in it are associated with humanly things and not unknown matter. To open up the discussion, the author successfully uses a comparative approach to allow easier understanding. The basic theme is introduced as the differentiation between the ‘Real One’ and the ‘Numerical One’. Instead of just listing the comparisons, the author also notes the effects this differentiation holds. He first mentions that if this differentiation is achieved, it would lead to a clear virtue and ultimately to a well-governed country. The author doesn’t just stop here, but further lists the repercussions of not realizing the difference with non-governed countries ultimately leading to impure roots and branches. Leading the discussion forward, the manner that he progresses is rather profound as he begins to explain the complexities of the single letter ‘I’. He ties the discussion back to the beginning phrase of ‘bears witness’ by noting that humans can only bear witness while only the ‘Real Lord’ is able to identify with the ‘I’. Although, the overall theme of the discussion is based on a divine concept, the author manages to introduce examples from real life to allow a clearer deeper insight to the concepts. An effective example is that of a mirror and a woman, this allows one to visualize the concept of mirror being only able to reflect the image of the woman but not the woman herself; linking back to the idea of differentiating the Real One from the Numerical One. As mentioned before, one of the greatest tools used in this writing are the many literary devices, providing a more vivid perspective to the topic. One of the greatest means of attaining the attention of an audience is to ‘talk the talk and walk the walk’ in a manner that they would be able to associate to the discussion. In this case, the author was successful in skillfully shaping arguments in a manner that allowed the readers to understand the concepts by expanding on their own knowledge. The overall writing is bound by a general structure and various ideologies which are applied by Buddhism, Taoism and Neo-Confucianism. Instead of referring to the teachings of Islam, the author mentions the word ‘Tao’ at various places to get the message across even if it’s labeled under a different category. He also connects to various concepts and identities integral to Buddhism and Taoism, to allow a comparative approach to the discussion. Some examples include references to yin and yang, heavenly immortals, Buddha and Lao Tzu. Also, one interesting aspect of the writing is the non-aggressive tone. Any religiously controversial topic can lead to eruptions amongst followers or violent responses. Examples of these include questioning the validity of Buddha and Lao Tzu, heightening the position of Muhammad as a sage and pointing out the limits of other religions which are broken by Islam. However, the way the discussion is organized it confuses the reader if it is to be taken offense against. This is an effective way to allow the message to be highlighted among the pages, yet hidden through comparisons. The Buddhist idea of ‘compassion’ is also used to allow a connection between the two tradition and at the same time introducing a different aspect to the concept of ‘compassion’ by connecting it to the ‘Real Lord’. Luo Xiaowei’s essay ‘The Mosque: History, Architectural development, and Regional Development’ provides an architectural reference by referring to history of mosques. Architecture is one of the greatest means of understanding history as it is constructed under the traditional and cultural surroundings present at the time. Through architecture, one can identify the imported structures and ideas from other traditions as well as understand the local culture of the time. In the case of China, Islam was a religion that came from the West and incorporated itself in the region through its large numbers of followers during the rise of Islam. Mosques being a central site for communal worship for Muslims are the central architectural sites that can allow one to analyze Islam in China and its development over time. As Muslims began to be acculturated to the Chinese culture, so did the architectural styles. In this case, originally a traditional Islamic mosque with Arab architectural structure later became integrated into the Chinese culture. This was achieved as some of the Near Eastern Islamic influences were maintained in the mosques however the overall Chinese architectural tradition was applied. Over the four major periods of Muslim architecture in China, one can notice that even though the style went through various integration processes yet the overall plan remains the same. This includes the entrance of the prayer hall in the east, presence of minarets, minbar, domes and stairways. Many of the Islamic architectural influences are maintained due to their religious associations; Prayer hall faces the east to allow the worshippers to face Mecca, Presence of a platform with minaret to allow moon sighting as Muslims follow the Islamic calendar, presence of domes to allow amplification of sound as the call to prayers is said etc. It is interesting to see a combination of the two traditions as it allows a new tradition to develop. For example, the mosque continued to have Islamic scriptures on the walls in the form of calligraphy however the structures that they are placed on are of Chinese traditional style, allowing a mixing of the two traditions. In reference to the Anthony Garnaut article, Calligraphy is a central art form in the Islamic world due to the prohibition of pictures. Since Quran is the central scripture of the Islamic tradition, most of the calligraphy is verses and passages from the Quran. Furthermore, Islamic calligraphy also flourished in a new form as it integrated itself into the Chinese culture.

This video provides various examples with a combination of Chinese and Islamic script giving rise to a new unique for of calligraphy:

It is interesting to see the transformations that it went through to fit to the Chinese tradition; Chinese script is in a square form however Arabic is cursive but it molded itself into a square form over time. Also, as mentioned in the discussion of architecture, one cannot call this a mixture of two traditions but rather a new tradition on its own. This is because these new forms of mosques and calligraphy are highly unique in a manner that they incorporated two traditions into themselves and developed as a new form.

Wednesday, September 30, 2009

Tracing Shadows: The Hidden Roots of Hui Identity

The reading 'China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects' by Micheal Dillon traces the footsteps of the Hui community, as it analysis its development and how it incorporated itself into the Chinese historical tradition. The study focuses on the social, economic, political and, religious aspects surrounding the Hui identity and how these played a role in their establishment. A common theme involves recognizing the distinctiveness of Hui community in comparison to other Muslim minorities in China, as well as their distinction in relation to the Han Chinese population. Also, religious aspect emerges continuously through out, to understand the level of influence that Islamic tradition may have had in regulating the Hui identity. The study focuses on the Hui communities in northwestern regions of China, to understand the continuous struggle of Hui to maintain their identity and their defense against falling into the conformoties of the Chinese tradition. At this point, one of the gaps of the studies can be pointed out as it only focuses on the regions with high Hui concentration and not the areas throughout China where they exist as minorities. The northwestern regions may have been very significant in maintaining the distinctiveness of the Hui identity as a whole; however a true perspective to the issue can only be attained through a tedious and lengthy yet complete study of all these communities present.

One of the key factors leading to the tensions associated with Chinese minorities and their differences is associated with classification of an ethnicity. Ethnicity allows a comparative scale of differentiating oneself from the other, providing a sense of identity. This is perceived as an idea that may remain dormant for long periods but can be reactivated under difficult situations, leading to redevelopment of bonds amongst people sharing common ethnic identities. However, one may say that this may be too vague of an idea because the definition of ethnicity is true but the term itself may be of a very dynamic nature. Ethnicity cannot be limited by words, as it keeps changing under circumstances and context. This involves factors such as acculturation of a community into a new community so much so that the differences are almost unidentifiable, assimilation, sinicization and integration of communities amongst one another. Another important factor is mentioned in the article, associated with ethnicity being party self-assigned. This involves individuals following their free will and choosing their path of allegiances. Amongst all these forces at work, the context in which all these take place is of extreme significance. This is because the establishment of an ethnic identity may hold a completely different meaning based on the historical mileu. The constant fluctuations of the surrounding play an important role in the development of a tradition as well defining the identity of the people forming the tradition.

Historically, contact between Middle East and China are dated back as early as the rise of Islam and during the dominance of the Han dynasty. The interactions are recorded to have been associated with trade expeditions with Persians or Arab traders. Due to the scarcity of sources and blurry accounts, the details of these historical records are left unclear. In this case, the traders may have been Arabs or Persians but none of them necessarily Muslims. The Arab and Persian traditions themselves are unique from each other with vast cultural differences. From this, one can see that it is already hard to identify the true historical roots of the Islamic footsteps in China due to unreliable records. Under the Tang dynasty, the term Dashi is coined to identify the people of Middle Eastern background. The term continues the assumptive path as it is derived from the Persian word Tajik, hence its use may not be Islamic at all. Also, the term is associated with various usages under different contexts. Throughout the Tang dynasty and until the Mongol conquest, the term is used to refer to the Muslim homeland, besides the obscurity of its probable non-Muslim Persian roots. A later term to refer to Muslims in China was Hui or Huihui. Similar to Dashi, the roots of Hui raises questions because of its strict reference to Muslims in China. The term may have been used to refer to Persian-speaking immigrants to China, who may not even be Muslims.

Various perspectives provide a background to the roots of Hui tradition. Firstly, the term Dashi is a direct translation of Khwarezm, which is the region that Hui are believed to have originated from. The region is predominantly identified by a Persian tradition; however had a rich essence of Arabic and Turkish linguistics and customs. The Persian background is associated with the influence under the Sassanid and Archimed Empire. The Arab characteristics developed under the Arab conquest of the regions, with the establishment of Islamic teachings. Secondly, another development of Hui identity is associated to the Mongol period. During this period, Mongol emperors took Central Asian artisans to the far east, where they are believed to have been the founders of many Hui communities. In this case, it is also assumed that all the craftsmen from Central Asia were Muslims, however it is impossible to know if they really were. Under the Yuan, such people with their roots in Central Asia were identified as semu. The term further generalizes and assumes that everyone placed in the category of Muslims belonged to the same ethnicity and background. The classification of Muslims in one category prevents the reality of the distinguishing characteristics amongst Muslims.

It can thus be understood that although one may realize the various factors that may be present in developing the Hui identity, it is uncertain if their background is associated with a certain class or group. The broad classification leads to vast gaps in history as even the prominent differences amongst Muslims and other minorities remain hidden in the depths of history. Ethnicity and linguistic divisions play an important role in defining an identity, but due to the obscurity of events, it remains unknown if a particular one played a role in the development of the Hui tradition.

Furthermore, under the Ming it was assumed that Muslims would be persecuted for their support of the Yuan dynasty as this period marked the reemergence of Chinese culture and Muslims once again became identified as a minority. However, due to the large scale dispersion of Hui population throughout China, it experienced the acculturation of the Hui community into the Chinese Han population as well as their sinicization. Some of these practices included adopting Han names, and intermarriages. This makes it even more difficult to trace back the history of the Hui population, as they cloaked themselves into a new identity. Even some of the leading figures such as the first Ming emperor Ming Taizu are believed to have Central Asian ancestors. This period marks a high level of assimilation of the Hui in to the Ming dynasty, leading to even blurrier accounts of identifying true Hui history.

In addition, The Islamic religious orders also play an important role in the development of the Hui identity. An examination of these orders can also provide a deeper insight to understanding the complexities associated with the Hui identity. It is emphasized that a variety of religious institutions and organizations were significant in preserving Islam in China. Participating in an Islamic order not only defines a religious belief, but also provides a unique identity to the individual. The religious grouping and sects were important in the continuity of the Hui tradition as people pledged allegiances based on the content of the religious practice. Gedimu tradition was the most conservative of the Islamic traditions belonging to the Hanafi school of thought. It exercised through a mosque community system but was very loosely organized. This allowed it to maintain itself as center of Muslim activities and not impose a threat to the stability of the Chinese Imperial rule. An opposite of this belief system was the mystical tradition of Islam, known as Sufism. This played the most significant role of preserving Islamic tradition in China as it provided an alternative practice to the orthodox Islamic tradition. The most significant of the Sufi orders was known as Naqshbandiyya. This sect allowed the followers to accommodate themselves to the Chinese tradition, at the same time maintain their Muslim identity. The Sufi orders further categorized into various types, many conflicted each other and some were more accommodating to Chinese culture than others. Besides the diversity among many religions around China, Islam it self encompassed various groupings which further branched themselves into smaller categories. This shows the limitations of classification scales as they leaves behind important details that each tradition exhibit at an internal level.

This small video highlights the contemporary Hui status:

Also, language may serve as an important measurement of scaling Hui roots in China. The Hui have co-inhabited the region with the Han Chinese for such a long period that they have mastered the Han written and spoken language. However, they maintain a unique aspect with Persian and Arabic words incorporated into their language. Arabic continues to exhibit its influence on the language due to its religious significance; being the language of the Quran. Persian significantly dates back to the Mongol period where it flourished as the dominating language. In comparison to the Hui, Uyghur language shows more resemblance to Uzbek language and has more loan words from Persian.

This survey allows one to examine the diverse historical roots associated with the Hui population. Religiously, not only are their various sub-categories such as sects that separate Muslims into different followings, but also in each sect there are groupings with further religious ideologies. Linguistically as well, Hui speak a dialect which incorporates Chinese, Arabic and Persian tradition. The central theme of this survey can be expressed as defining the limitations and boundaries of classification. Classification tends to ignore the intricate details of a tradition that may have played a significant role in the development of the tradition. In order to attain a deeper perspective to the tradition, as well as to accommodate the tradition into a culture, it’s important to identify their differences and develop an infrastructure on that basis.

Michael, Dillon,. China's Muslim Hui community migration, settlement and sects. London: Curzon, 1999.

Unveiling Islam in China

Upon first exposure to the topic of Islam in China, one is caught in a rather perplexed thought. This may be due to the odd combination of the two terms. I refer to it as ‘odd’ because Islam is mostly associated with Arab roots with its strong hold in Middle East and Southeast Asia. On the other hand, China as a country is associated with Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism as being the dominant religious followings. However, upon a closer analysis it’s not so odd after all. Roots of Buddhism can be traced back in the Indian subcontinent which overtime branched into China and developed into a dominant religion. Hence, the presence of Islam in China may not be that surprising after all and one may understand the relationship between the two through a historical and geographical analysis. However, a lack of academic interest and research towards the presence of Islam in China prevents a true perspective on the topic. A combination of the few Arabic and Chinese sources allows one to develop a sense of the earlier developments of Islam in the far east. Through these records its seen that Islam imprinted its marks in China around 7th or 8th century, correlating closely to the period of rise of Islam. It is certain that with the establishment of any foreign populations, the ruling powers tend to focus on making laws and edicts to specifically regulate the new populations. In the case of Chinese Empire, the foreigners from Central Asia experience a similar effect but the strictness of these regulatory laws depended on the historical context of the time; the ruling dynasty. There are fluctuations in the treatment of Muslims under varying rules. There were ruling powers where Muslims faced pressure and persecution, while there where other where Muslims flourished. Over time, Muslims integrated themselves into the Chinese population as they became sinicized and acculturated into the Chinese Han population. Even with the integrative processes and high rate of assimilation, Muslim religious practices separated them from the Chinese culture. Some examples of these distinctive practices include prohibition of intoxicating beverages, male circumcision, halal meat etc.

Looking at the contemporary infrastructure of China, it seems absurd that history is treated as a children’s book as the storyline is set in place and then event are put in place, just so the lead characters can have the ‘happily ever after’. This is in reference to China’s creation of one central history for the nation accompanied by smaller histories for each of the ethnic minorities. Furthermore, categorizing minorities as ‘minzu’ only reemphasizes on a sense of non-belonging to the minorities as even if they try to assimilate with the Chinese tradition, they are still defined under a separate category. Also, each category might have a different connotation depending on the historical context that it was enforced in. The ruling powers may have played a significant role in identifying a minority in a certain manner which may not interpret for the rulers to follow. Even defining Muslims, is a dilemma on its own. For what may be a religion with defined rules and regulations, there continue to be variances in the level of adherence at an individual level; some Muslims drink alcohol. Perception is another important factor to be considered while analyzing history. These accounts may be corrupted by the historical context they were written in, the historian’s perspective, as well as many other forces in play; geographical atmosphere (empire, nation-states). Although nation-states may be the present scheme of rule, however they are not definite as well. Hence, defining one group of people as the dominant one over the other could ultimately only lead to initiation of a rebellion by the minorities. A similar example to this is present in the form of China’s neighboring countries of India and Pakistan. Originally, Muslims and Hindus shared a common state in the Indian-subcontinent. However, due to the imbalance of power with Hindus dominating the Muslim minority, it ultimately led to the division of the countries. This finally led to the foundation of Pakistan as it identified itself as an independent Muslim state.

Xinjiang is a region that traces its history back to being controlled by various powers thus exhibiting a very dynamic environment. It expresses a mixture of cultures with its populations identifying themselves to various backgrounds. Lumping individuals under common categories prevents the uncovering of true identities. In order for an effective control over the region, PRC has to appreciate the unique nature of the various kinds of backgrounds and cultures associated with the minorities. The minorities should have the ability to define their individuality based on their distinctive backgrounds and cultures rather then being forced to integrate themselves into a central Chinese infrastructure defined by the PRC. Once a sense of belonging is established by the minorities, only then can a sense of common nation goals can erupt at both ends.

A quick trip to Xinjiang:

Lipman, Jonathan. “Introduction”, “Frontier Ground and Peoples of Northwest China” Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997.

Millward, James and Peter C. Perdue. “Political and Cultural History of the Xinjiang Region through the Late Nineteenth Century” Xinjiang: China’s Muslim BorderlandLondon: M.E Sharpe, 2004.